THE INFLUENCE
OF AFRICAN INDIGENOUS RELIGIONS
ON
ROMAN CATHOLICISM,
THE IGBO EXAMPLE.
By
Father Christopher I. Ejizu
Faculty of Humanities
NIGERIA
Whether
the truce in the age-old hostility is permanent or not, the recent shift in the
official attitude of the Catholic Church towards non-Christian religions
including African indigenous ones, is as historic as it is revolutionary. The
Second Vatican Council remains both the culminating point as well as the point
of departure for bold and positive developments that we witness currently in
inter-religious relations. Up until the Vatican II, the official policy of the
Church in relation to other religions and their millions of adherents was, to
put it mildly, unchristian. That was the protracted era of extra
ecclesiam nulla salus (outside the
Church there is no salvation - whatever interpretation one gives to that).
Incontestably, the negative attitude reflected the dominant mind-set and extreme
ethnocentrism of the age in the West. Social analysts and writers like Auguste
Comte and George J. Fraser, inspired by
The
negative policy was often complicated in the mission-field by the bitter
competition that characterised Christian evangelical enterprise by rival groups.
The heydays of missionary campaign were between the 19th and first
half of the 20th-centuries in many parts of sub-Saharan
But, it would be wrong to
conclude from the largely negative attitude of the pre-Vatican II era, that
African Indigenous Religions had no influence on Roman Catholicism. Not only
would that contradict one of the canons of socio-cultural change (a view that
would definitely excite considerable interest among social analysts and
researchers), but it could also be a case of pre-mature conclusion drawn without
adequate attention to the facts. In fact, as the Igbo example which I propose to
elaborate in this paper illustrates, there has always been some kind of
influence of African Indigenous Religions on Roman Catholicism in the Continent,
albeit in varying degrees, and either positive or negative, from one phase of
the interaction to another. I shall indeed be arguing that in the Igbo case,
this influence commenced from the earliest stage of the advent of the Catholic
missionaries in the late 19th-century, and has continued ever since
to the present. It is possible to distinguish certain distinct phases in that
continuum, such as the stage of initial huge interest and influence of the Igbo
language for purposes of disseminating the gospel message, particularly in
preaching and production of basic literary texts. There is also the phase of
direct influence on the received Catholic tradition of several other aspects of
the indigenous religious culture such as art, music and dance, title-system,
age-differentiation system, architectural design, as well as organisational
patterns.
The
impact of visible indigenous cultural forms may be readily evident and easily
measurable, but as I intend to argue in the latter part of this essay, it is
really at the ideational level (that is, the level of fundamental perception of
reality/world-view) with the inter-related attitudes, value orientation and
moral disposition, that the influence of the indigenous religious culture on
Roman Catholicism comes into bold relief. The attainment of national
selfhood/independence (in the 1960s for several African countries), and more
relevantly, the Second Vatican Council are two major developments that provide
the backdrop to the acceleration of the rate of influence. I plan to give due
attention to that phase. I shall try to conclude on a note that should be viewed
more as a personal reflection than a critical academic analysis, of the
cumulative effect of the Indigenous Religion on Roman Catholicism currently in
Igboland.
The
Influence of Igbo Language
In
spite of their disdain for the indigenous religious culture, pioneer Christian
missionaries in general (whether Roman Catholic or Protestant), knew pretty well
they had to depend on the indigenous language to communicate the gospel message
to the people. While the doctrines and principal religious ideas remained those
of their respective Christian traditions, the local language as the primary
medium of communication with their host, provided the bulk of the concepts,
terms and linguistic symbols and imageries. That is not all. It set limit to
thought and understanding of the received message of the missionaries.
Missionaries of the Church Missionary
Society (C.M.S.), who were the first to arrive Igbo territory (1857), had a
further head-start over their Roman Catholic counter-part. Among their pioneers
at
In
another development, the opposition and eventual rejection in 1929 of the
production of a common Igbo orthography, Union
Igbo, as it was formally called, by expatriate Catholic missionaries, might
have brought some short-term advantage. It was feared that erroneous doctrine
would enter the fold from Protestants, if the Union Igbo was accepted. But, in
the long run, it was counter-productive. Neither did the failure of
missionaries, particularly from the time of Bishop J. Shanahan, to learn and use
the Igbo language in their pastoral work, help matters. For too long, the
Catholic Church retained the trappings of a foreign and elitist religion with
many of its important terms and concepts left in foreign, rather than local
language.
Older
Catholics do still recall some of the caustic and laughable jokes illiterate
members made out of such foreign religious jargons in the Catholic Catechism
text, for example, the names of the seven sacraments; baptism,
confirmation, holy eucharist, confession, extreme unction, holy orders and
matrimony were mockingly rendered thus. (Sakaramenti
buga ndia; baa-tism,
confameshion, ukarika di-aso, Joseph Nwa-ekpili, nwanneya nke nwulu-anwu,
dagbunyelu n’oku, na man-trimony). Or, the case of the old grand-ma by
name Maria, who was reportedly harassed every week-end by her grand children to
go to kwen-kweshion (sacrament of Reconciliation) on Saturdays in
preparation for the Sunday holy Mass. Maria finally decides to attend the
sacrament. There in the church at the confessional, the pastor queries; “Maria
did you commit sin?” (Maria
imelu njo?) She replies; “My
son, I did not commit any sin, but if a fellow woman insults me, I give it back
to her with an equally sharp insult” (Nwam
emehowum njo-nwa,
In
a similar vein, an expatriate Catholic missionary was reported to have taught
children at a catechism class that, “God has very much power in heaven”. In
his attempt to speak Igbo he failed to respect the tonal marks and ended up
saying that (Chukwu
nwelu nnukwu ike, n’ enu-’igwe – God has a big bottom, on a piece
of steel) While the catechist got the following answer from an old lady convert
at the catechism examination for baptism, “how many types of spirit are
there?” (Uzo
otu nmuo one di. The old woman reportedly answered; “They are legion,
where would one begin to enumerate? Would I mention Ulaga, or Ike-udo, or Ijele,
or Nw’ikpo”(Fa
abakanu-abaka. Kedu ebe aga ebido-ebido guba, Aga ebido na Ulaga, m’obu Ike-udo,
m’obu Ijele, mobu na Nw’-ikpo?
The old lady misunderstands the question and answers with a list of local
masquerades which also are known as spirits by the Igbo. (I acknowledge the
assistance of Mrs V. Onumajuru in the jokes).
Your
guess is as good as mine about the quality of grasp of the faith and formation
in spirituality such poorly-explained and hardly-understood concepts achieved.
All that of course, forms part of the total impact of the indigenous religio-cultural
background on Roman Catholicism in Igboland.
Certainly,
there were several landmark achievements made by the Catholic missionary
pioneers in respect of Igbo language, including the early publications of Father
Aime Ganot of an Igbo Dictionary, an Igbo Grammar book and Katechismi
Nke Okwukwe in the early 1900s; also the Ndu Dinwenu Anyi and the Igbo Catechism by the Catholic Mission in
1940 and 1944 respectively, etc. A full discussion of that important
contribution together with the significant effort of the indigenous
collaborators, including John Anyogu (later bishop), John Dureke, and Joseph
Modebe is not of immediate concern to us in this paper.
Other
Aspects of the Indigenous Religious Culture;
One
needs a broad conceptualisation of Igbo religion to better grasp the full
significance of its influence. Religion, it should be recalled, is the womb of
the culture in the traditional Igbo background. It permeates most aspects of
life, and infuses them with meaning and significance. Major A.G. Leonard, the
pioneer soldier-administrator from
Catholic
and other Christian missionary groups had mounted sustained campaign against
these and other aspects of Igbo indigenous religion. Their onslaught led
eventually to what O.U. Kalu and E. A. Ayandele refer to poignantly as the
“rout of the gods” and “the collapse of Igbo pagandom” (Ikenga-Metuh
ed., 1986: 1f, 134f). Chi, Mpata-aku,
Ikenga, and other relevant deities and cosmic forces of the Igbo were
dislocated and supplanted. But, some important attitudes and ideals they helped
the indigenous people to cultivate as part of their total personality, (e.g.
self-reliance, competitive spirit, strong achievement motif, progressive
outlook), were exploited by the missionaries to benefit Christianity. The
multiplicity of Catholic mission schools, a common feature of life in Igboland
before1970, the phenomenal growth of converts to the Church, even the
outstanding increase in the number of vocations to the priesthood and
consecrated religious life (men and women), are not unrelated to the indigenous
cultural background of the Igbo. (Recall the story of Ezeulu in Chinua
Achebe’s novel. Ezeulu asks one of his sons to enrol in the mission school in
the hope that he would serve later as his eyes and ears in the new world of the
white man. Similar tales abound in individual biographies of pioneer converts).
Even
the major shift and refocusing in Catholic missionary strategy that took place
at the dawn of the 20th-century, was informed partly by and traceable
to the influence of the indigenous religion. The missionaries had embarked on an
initial apostolate of redeeming slaves and establishing proto-type Christian
villages for pioneer Igbo converts, made up mainly of outcasts and lowly members
of the society. The bulk of the population, appeared not to have been moved by
that strategy, partly because such class of people were not generally regarded
highly in the traditional background. Their poor destiny, it was thought, could
be the result of some divine wrath due invariably to some serious moral/ritual
misconduct. The Father Superior, Lejeune and his confreres were therefore,
impelled to articulate and launch a more effective policy of evangelisation,
namely; the formal education/school apostolate in 1903.
On
the other hand, the missionaries quickly noticed that the Igbo were
traditionally positively disposed to and attracted by rich religious
paraphernalia and mystically-oriented rituals. They exploited this to the full.
From time to time, they organised well choreographed liturgical celebrations in
strategic towns like Aguleri and Ogboli-Onitsha for such major feasts like
Another
method Catholic missionaries used considerably to their advantage was making
their acts of public worship (liturgy) as elaborate and colourful as possible.
During religious feasts, especially the Mass and various devotions to the
Blessed Eucharist and the saints, altars were beautifully decorated with
flowers, lighted candles, incense and colourful vestments were used. Statues of
saints as well as the crucifix were displayed at strategic places. Organ music
would accompany the choir which sang hymns in Latin and Vernacular.
Such
well dramatised celebrations made significant impact in the minds of people, and
not infrequently helped conversion as entries in missionary journals reveal.
Listen to one such detailed entry made barely two years of the missionaries’
arrival in
Fair
weather allows a good crowd of
Certainly,
there was some resemblance of aspects of Igbo indigenous religious worship and
certain features of the Roman liturgy. One clear example was the similarity
between the awe and dominant sense of mystery that largely characterised the
Pius V Roman Liturgy in vogue in the pre-Vatican II era on the one hand, and the
dense ritual symbolism, aura and mystically-oriented nature of Igbo indigenous
religion. (Compare the elaborate ritual paraphernalia and drama that generally
accompany the procession of ritual officiants, or the movement of physical
symbols of a deity by Igbo traditional religionists, and the rite of Benediction
to the Blessed Sacrament or the
Even
the fundamental outlook, perception or vision of reality (world-view), as well
as a number of important beliefs and ideas of the indigenous Igbo, were said to
have considerably influenced the overall method of evangelisation of many
Catholic missionaries, including the great Bishop Joseph Shanahan.
The
method Catholic missionaries adopted here in teaching the faith to the people
especially since the time of Bishop Shanahan …was one which strove to
transform, not destroy, the people’s religious consciousness. The missionaries
realized that the people’s traditional religious ideas were not so much
incorrect as incomplete, and required only completion and sublimation.
C.
A Obi who talks of “proto-Christian” content of much of Igbo traditional
religion, concludes that the people’s outstanding response to the mission of
the Holy Ghost Fathers in Onitsha and its neighbourhood was greatly facilitated
by the “spirit-consciousness of the Igbo”(1985: 380).
With
the Second Vatican Council comes a radical shift in virtually every significant
aspect of life of the Church. Particularly in the areas of the Church’s
understanding of itself and its mission in the world, Vatican II articulated
some of the most profound and revolutionary insight that have continued to shape
developments both within and outside the Church, concerning particularly the
well-being of man, society and religious life.
Lumen
Gentium (the Dogmatic Constitution on the Church), for example opens with
the declaration linking the mystery of the Church with the unity of the human
race (art. 1), while Gaudium et Spes (the
Constitution on the Church in the Modern World), speaks of the universal
application of the “reign of God” (Missio
Dei), as one that is not necessarily ecclesiocentric, but does apply “to
all men of good will in whose hearts grace works in an unseen way” (art. 22).
On the vital subject of religious freedom in a contemporary world that is
markedly plural and complex, the Council proclaims in no unmistaken terms that
the human person enjoys the fundamental right of religious freedom. “This
freedom means that all men (people) are to be immune from coercion on the part
of individuals or of social groups and of any human power, in such wise that no
one is to be forced to act in a manner contrary to his own beliefs, whether
privately or publicly, whether alone or in association with others, within due
limits” (Dignitatis Humanis,
art. 2).
Although
none of the documents of Vatican II mentions African Indigenous Religions by
name, there is a wide consensus that the latter are included in the
all-embracing category of non-Christian Religions discussed in Nostra
Aetate (the Declaration of the Relationship of the Church to Non-Christian
Religions). In one of its most oft-quoted pronouncement on the subject, the
Council clearly spells out the Church’s current position on religions of the
world other than Christianity. “The Catholic Church rejects nothing that is
true and holy in these religions. She regards with reverence those other ways of
conduct and of life, those precepts and teachings which, though differing in
many aspects from the ones she holds and sets forth, nonetheless often reflect a
ray of that Truth which enlightens all men. … The Church therefore, exhorts
her sons, that through dialogue and collaboration with the followers of other
religions, carried out with prudence and love and in witness to the Christian
faith and life, they recognise, preserve and promote the good things, spiritual
and moral, as well as the social-cultural values found among these men”(art.
2).
Some
Major External Stimulators;
The
intellectual ferment that led to these far-reaching pronouncements in the
Catholic Church did not occur in a vacuum. Certain noteworthy events in the
wider world many of which directly or indirectly affected the thinking and
course of developments in the Church, did take place in the period prior to and
around the commencement of the Second Vatican Council. The Second World War 1939
– 1945, for instance, had brought with it a lot of lessons; particularly about
the inter-dependence of peoples, a sense of disenchantment with the prevailing
idea of progress mainly in terms of science and technology, better travelling
facilities and access to different peoples and regions of the world, greater
knowledge and information about other cultures and races, etc.
On
the other hand, on the political front, demand for national selfhood by many
colonial dependencies in different parts of the world grew louder and more
strident after World War II. Along with that was a reawakening of the sense of
cultural identity among several colonised peoples of the world, including
Pontifical
Council For Interreligious Dialogue (PCID);
In
the little over forty years since the successful conclusion of Vatican II,
various agencies and institutions of the Church have grown up charged with
responsibility of implementing the different decisions.
One such institution is the autonomous dicastery of the Roman Curia known
at its creation in 1964 as Secretariatus
Pro Non-Christianis (Secretariat for Non-Christians), now called Pontificium
Consilium Pro Dialogo Inter Religiones
(the Pontifical Council for Interreligious Dialogue - PCID). Until a few years
ago, it was headed by a most distinguished son of Igboland; the emeritus
Archbishop of Onitsha (His Eminence, Francis Cardinal Arinze).
I
presume the mandate, focus and work of the PCID are familiar to many of us,
thanks to the regular annual briefings of His Eminence, Francis Cardinal Arinze
while he served as the President of the Pontifical Council, as well as the many
publications of the Council and the ex-President himself. What may not be
immediately known to many of you gathered in this auditorium this morning, is
that the conference you have organised, in fact, conforms with a recent
directive of the Pontifical Council. In the “Letter of the Pontifical Council
for Inter-religious Dialogue to the Presidents of Episcopal Conferences in Asia,
the
The
document proceeds to list the major elements of the Indigenous Religions, such
as a clear belief in One God, a belief in spirits like those of deceased
ancestors, a moral code, etc. Adducing reasons and the need for the advocated
greater pastoral attention and dialogue with Indigenous Religions towards proper
inculturation, the Letter states inter
alia that elements of both a religion and the culture influenced by it can
enrich catechesis and liturgy, and therein attain their fulfilment. As for
inter-religious dialogue between Catholics and Indigenous Religionists, the
document insists that dialogue be understood in the broadest possible sense,
namely as the pastoral approach “in the ordinary sense of encounter, mutual
understanding, respect, discovery of the seeds of the Word in the religion, and
the joint quest for God’s will”, in order to present the Gospel of Our Lord
Jesus Christ in the most appropriate manner, so that the Church may have deeper
roots among the people (21 November, 1993: 4).
Unarguably,
developments in inter-religious relations since the Vatican II have been
far-reaching, even as experts continue to explore further; including the
possibility of regarding non-Christian Religions as “ordinary channels of
salvation for their members”. Against the background of the revolutionary
change in attitude and thinking in the Church, let me further highlight certain
striking areas of influence of Igbo Indigenous Religion on Roman Catholicism in
the post Vatican II era.
Language,
Music and Art;
The
level and degree of influence of the three may not be even. But, the overall
impact of Igbo language, music and art on Roman Catholicism particularly since
Vatican II, is huge and highly significant. Serious commitment on the part of
the local Church since 1970 to the use of Igbo language in the administration of
the sacraments and sacramentals, including bearing of Igbo names by candidates
at baptism, has brought about the greater influence of the indigenous language
in the Church. The initial objection and protest that formed part of the novel
practice in the 1970s quickly died down. Thus, Igbo language gradually has since
become accepted as the ordinary language of liturgical worship and sacramental
administration in the Catholic Church in Igboland. The successful translation of
basic religious texts into the indigenous language, especially the entire Bible,
the Roman Missal and sacramental rites, is very positive and relevant. The
greater usage of Igbo language in the Church’s liturgy naturally brings with
it the employment of many indigenous religious concepts, idioms, and expressions
into the lexicon of the Roman Catholic Church in Igboland. This, in turn, brings
into the Catholic tradition certain orientation in spirituality and moral
attitude from the Igbo indigenous religious and cultural background.
The
account of the influence of Igbo language on Roman Catholicism today would be
incomplete without mentioning the significance of the Odenigbo
series (lecture and colloquium). This is a fairly recent special pastoral cum
academic initiative of Archbishop A.J.V. Obinna and Archdioyosis
nke Owerre. Its primary goal and design is to use the Igbo language and
culture to spread the message of Jesus Christ to Igbo people. Kristi
Odenigbo is fast gaining popularity within and outside
The
influence of the indigenous religion on the Church’s liturgical music in the
post-Vatican II era is equally significant, thanks to the continuing effort of
the different Diocesan and inter-Diocesan Liturgical Music Commissions. Through
their effort, the Catholic Church in Igboland has been able to mobilise and
encourage talented individuals to use their skills in order to blend indigenous
rhythms, tunes and motifs into the Church’s musical ensemble. Worthy of
special mention, is the evident rhythmic appeal and gusto of many contemporary
musical pieces for specific aspects of the liturgy in the
Some
people have wondered as to the source of their special appeal. I suggest that a
good measure of it comes from the indigenous religious and cultural background
of the Igbo. The indigenous religious culture has a rich tradition of joyful
rituals and thanksgiving to ancestral and other benevolent spirits, special
offering and dedication of animals and things, (human beings occasionally), to
patron deities and nature forces. Some examples that readily come to mind
include the Ikwuaru festival in the
Nnewi-Ozubulu area during which fat bulls are purchased, paraded and offered to
honour local patron arch-deities, the practice of commissioning Mbari art gallery in the south-central zone, or artfully-decorated Ikenga
sculptures in the Anambara sub-culture area, the performance of special
musical lyrics and dance by minstrels, and/or prestigious and highly decorated
masquerade like Ijere, Oka-nga, Ozo-Ebunu, Ikpirikpi Ogu/Iri-agha, by adult males, etc. The
indigenous religious culture is partly responsible, therefore, for the emerging
rich collection of soul-stirring liturgical pieces. Indeed, the achievement of
the Catholic Church in Igboland in the area of liturgical music must rank among
the best the African Continent has produced in recent times.
In
the field of art, the degree of influence may not be as elaborate, but it is no
less striking. Gifted Igbo carvers, sculptors and other art-creators have been
able to employ local materials as well as indigenous religio-cultural ideas,
symbols and motifs to express some important Christian themes and values.
Beautifully carved doors rich in indigenous art-forms and other religious ritual
symbols today adorn several churches and Catholic religious centres in Igboland.
Also, considerable inspiration has been drawn by fabricators of Church
vestments, particularly in the areas of design and colour, from the rich
indigenous heritage of Igbo symbolism. Onitsha Archdiocese occasionally
organised public exhibition of religious art-works which attracted talented
art-creators, including carvers, sculptors, painters, designers, etc. Such
occasions are good opportunity not only for the display of finished products,
but also for cross-fertilisation of religious ideas among artists; Catholics as
well as non-Christians.
Influence
of Other Aspects in the
The favourable environment the Vatican II engendered has thrown wide open
the doors and created ample space for a big impact of the indigenous culture and
religion on Roman Catholicism. Virtually every important aspect of the Church;
its life and ministry, has been influenced directly or indirectly in
contemporary times. In addition to language, music and art, the traditional
age-grade system, as also other types of cultural practice have left their
impact on the Church. In some cases, the titles and practices have been adopted
wholescale into the Church, while in some others, there have been varying
degrees of modification, especially where religious rituals are involved. The
prestigious Ozo title initiation which posed a protracted headache to the Church
in the north-western sub-culture, the Otu Ogbo (age grouping), the Iwa
Akwa initiation in Mbano area, the Mgbuli
(fattening ritual) for young ladies for marriage in Uli-Mgbidi axis, are
some typical examples. Even the voluntary religious associations in the Church,
like knighthood, become more acceptable to the people helped by a traditional
background that is familiar with cultural institutions like secret society and
prestige clubs, e.g. Otu-Odu, Ekwe/Lolo,
Ekpe, Okonko, Odo, etc.
In
the dynamic area of social and human organisation within the Church, the
influence of the indigenous culture has been significant as well. The Local
Church, no doubt, has drawn inspiration, and enjoys the added support of such
indigenous cultural patterns as the age-grade system (Otu
Ogbo, Otu Umu Ada, etc.), in the
arrangement and functioning of its current statutory bodies of the Catholic
Men’s Organisation (CMO), Catholic Women’s Organisation (CWO), Catholic
Boys’ (CBO), and Catholic Girls Organisation (CGO), at the station, parish,
deanery, diocesan and inter-diocesan levels. Lately, some dioceses in Igboland
have begun to organise its members resident in other towns within and outside
the country. Is this not related to the old idea of Igbo Unions, a cultural,
social and political association that flourished in several parts of the country
prior to the civil conflict? Or is the Offertory dance of young maidens which is
gradually gaining ground in several dioceses, not directly descended from the
indigenous dance of young virgins (girls) at shrines of local deities during the
Isi-ebili festival in parts of
Igboland?
At
times, the influence of the indigenous religious culture is perceived as a major
problem that Catholics, particularly innovative pastors, feel sufficiently
challenged and are able to create rites in the Church to respond to felt-need.
This appears to be the case for funeral/burial rituals, naming of babies,
churching of women after child-birth, marriage practice, new yam ritual,
widowhood practice, outing of new dance, etc. Currently, some pastors I know,
are seriously concerned with how to respond to the serious threat they feel
among their flock from a number of indigenous religio-cultural practices such as
membership and performance of major masquerades like Ozo-ebunnu,
Odo, possession of lineage Ofo
symbol, etc.
Occasionally,
Catholics adopt an ambivalent attitude to the influence and the threat they
perceive from the indigenous world-view and its related beliefs. Examples
include the case of Isi-Dada (dishevelled
hair in infants), Ogbanje/Iyi-Uwa, and
Mammy- water phenomena. On the one
hand, the Church condemns the Igbo world-view as well as any specific
traditional beliefs underlying indigenous practices that fall within the
competence area of traditional diviners and ritual experts. While, on the other
hand, some individual “charismatic” priests/faith-healers give credence to
tales grounded in that world-view, and proceed to devise elaborate rituals in
the Church to counter myriads of so-called “evil spirits” said to be at work
in the victims. I suggest that this ambivalent attitude and often cheap
interpretation of the persisting indigenous world-view, are the principal engine
driving what has presently become one of the most successful industries in
Nigeria; “the hydra-headed octopus of Prayer-ministry, Olu
Ezi-n’ulo, Casting-out and deliverance from evil spirits, Breaking of
curses, Miracle-manufacturing centres and establishments, etc.”, that
proliferate and take place within and outside the Catholic Church. Let me end
the rather long list of highlight of areas of major impact, by recalling that
both oath-taking and covenant-making (Inu-iyi
na Igba-ndu) are popular indigenous religio-cultural mechanisms of social
control and order. They have today found accommodation in the Catholic Church in
Igboland.
Conclusion;
Personal
skill, vision and individual initiative of missionary agents are a factor in
reviewing the extent of influence of the Indigenous Religions on Roman
Catholicism in sub-Saharan
The
dominant pattern of interaction and influence has tended to be lopsided, in
favour of the Roman Catholic Religion. The trend is good or bad, depending on
which side of the fence one is located.
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OF CITED WORKS
T.O.
Beidelman, “Social Theory and the Study of Christian Missions in
F.E.
Ekechi; Missionary
C.I.
Ejizu; “The Dialogue of Christianity and African Traditional Religion”, (PRO
DIALOGO),
A.
Flanery; Vatican
Council II, The Conciliar and Post Conciliar Documents, New Revised Edition 1992
(Northport, Liturgical Press, 1992), The
Dogmatic Constitution on the Church in
the Modern World (Gaudium
et Spes, 7/12/65; Decree on the
Missionary Activity of the Church (Ad
Gentes), 7/12/65; Declaration of
the Relationship of the Church to
Non-Christian Religions (Nostra
Aetate), 28/10/65; Declaration on
Religious Liberty (Dignitatis Humanae),
7/12/65
E.
Ikenga-Metuh and C.I. Ejizu; Hundred Years
of Catholicism in
N.
Omenka, “The Role of the Catholic
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Http//: